Morten Tofastrud

• Malick-Wahls, Sarah Lou; Devineau, Olivier; Zimmermann, Barbara & Tofastrud, Morten (2026). Finding common ground in commercial forests: Sheep grazing, timber production, and carnivore fences. Forest Ecology and Management. ISSN 0378-1127. 609. doi: 10.1016/j.foreco.2026.123663. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Sheep (Ovis aries Linnaeus, 1758) grazing has the potential for positive impacts on commercial forestry through weeding competing plants, or to be detrimental if browsing and trampling levels are high. In some regions of Norway, large, forested areas are fenced to minimize depredation risk from recovering carnivore populations on unsupervised sheep, but fences may alter the behavior of sheep leading to differential effects inside and outside of these fences. We estimated Norway spruce (Picea abies (Karst.) L.) sapling growth and frequency of damage in Inland and Trøndelag counties Norway, and related these to grazing intensity, fenced status, and competing vegetation along 70 transects within 8 fenced and 11 unfenced clearcuts during August 2024. We found that growth of terminal leaders decreased with increasing grazing intensity inside fences, whereas growth increased along with grazing intensity outside fences. Sheep grazing in our study had a positive effect on spruce sapling growth form by decreasing slenderness, measured by height-to-diameter ratio, both inside and outside fences. While less than three percent of saplings were browsed overall, browsing of saplings did increase at higher grazing intensities. Trampling was negligible on all transects. Our results suggest that sheep grazing is compatible with spruce regeneration and carnivore fencing as negative impacts from increasing amounts of sheep resulting in reduced growth of terminal leaders may have been offset by decreasing height-to-diameter ratios. Lower height-to-diameter ratios suggest more resilient saplings that could make them better able to withstand stressors. However, if sheep are allowed to reach high grazing intensities, this balance may not be achieved as browsing increases. With increasing demands on forested landscapes, integrating sheep grazing in carnivore-resistant fences on commercial forests presents an opportunity for multiple-use land management with minimal associated trade-offs.

• Malick-Wahls, Sarah Lou; Høydal, Silje Maria Midthjell; Devineau, Olivier & Tofastrud, Morten (2026). Declining bumblebee (Bombus) species richness and abundance with increasing sheep grazing intensity on traditional Norwegian summer farms. Ecological Solutions and Evidence. 7(3). doi: 10.1002/2688-8319.70288. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Semi‐natural grasslands are valuable habitat for bumblebees ( Bombus spp.) in Fennoscandia. These grasslands are often maintained by livestock such as free‐ranging sheep, but it is unclear if sheep grazing impacts bumblebee communities, and if so, which grazing intensity is best. We compared bumblebee species richness and abundance on semi‐natural grasslands in southeastern Norway at varying levels of disturbance by sheep (0–1680 initially released). We used Bayesian hierarchical models to test the intermediate disturbance hypothesis, that the highest bumblebee abundance and richness would occur at moderate grazing intensity, while considering other important habitat variables: distance to forest, meadow size, sward height, and availability of flowers, litter, and bare soil. We found no support for the intermediate disturbance hypothesis but rather a negative relationship between the number of sheep released and measures of bumblebee species richness and abundance from targeted netting. Effects varied among the most common species. B. pratorum and B. wurflenii were more sensitive to the number of sheep released than were B. jonellus . Bumblebee abundance estimated by two capture methods (blue vane trapping and targeted netting) was only weakly correlated and bumblebee species richness estimated from traps was unrelated to any of our predictor variables. Practical implication . Our results suggest a weak negative influence of any amount of sheep grazing on bumblebee abundance and richness. Targeted netting was a more reliable method than blue vane traps to assess effects on the bumblebee community.

• Malick-Wahls, Sarah Lou; Høydal, Silje Maria Midthjell; Devineau, Olivier & Tofastrud, Morten (2025). Optimal sheep grazing intensity for bumblebee Bombus species richness and abundance on traditional Norwegian summer farms. Ecological Solutions and Evidence. 6(2). doi: 10.1002/2688-8319.70054. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  1. Semi‐natural grasslands are recognized as important habitat for bumblebees in Fennoscandia. These grasslands are maintained by free‐ranging sheep, but it is unclear which sheep intensities are most beneficial to bumblebees. 2. We will compare bumblebee species richness and abundance with Bayesian mixed models at varying levels of disturbance by sheep to test the Intermediate Disturbance Hypothesis, while considering other important habitat variables: distance to forest, meadow size, sward height, and availability of flowers, litter and bare soil. 3. Practical Implication: Results of this investigation will provide valuable information to land managers setting limits for the number of free‐ranging sheep released on semi‐natural grasslands within the coniferous boreal landscape to benefit bumblebee conservation.

• Mayer, Martin; Dyngeland, Cecilie; Wabakken, Petter; Tofastrud, Morten & Zimmermann, Barbara (2025). Patterns of cattle and sheep losses related to large carnivores and other causes in the outfields of Norway. Biological Conservation. ISSN 0006-3207. 305. doi: 10.1016/j.biocon.2025.111107. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Large carnivore populations have increased in many areas of Europe, resulting in socio-political conflicts, especially in areas with extensive outfield grazing systems. In Norway, the occurrence of large carnivores, especially brown bears (Ursus arctos) and grey wolves (Canis lupus), are largely separated from outfield grazing areas via carnivore management zones. However, the overall drivers of livestock losses in the outfields and the contribution of large carnivores are not well understood. Here, we investigated (1) correlates of cattle and sheep losses across organized grazing areas of Norway to evaluate which factors, including large carnivore densities, livestock density, the size of the grazing area, tick density, landscape characteristics, and climatic variables, are responsible for livestock losses in the outfields, and (2) spatio-temporal correlates of cattle losses suspected of being attacked by large carnivores. Based on our analyses investigating cattle and sheep losses in organized outfield grazing areas, we found no evidence that large carnivore densities correlated with cattle losses, but the proportion of sheep losses increased with increasing large carnivore densities, especially of bears and wolverines (Gulo gulo). Importantly, factors other than large carnivores, such as tick density and landscape composition, were related to higher probabilities of cattle losses. Our study provides important information concerning the overall causes of livestock losses in the outfields, indicating that large carnivores contribute little to total cattle losses.

• Spedener, Mélanie; Tofastrud, Morten; Austrheim, Gunnar & Zimmermann, Barbara (2024). A Grazer in a Browser's Habitat: Resource Selection of Foraging Cattle in Productive Boreal Forest. Rangeland Ecology & Management. ISSN 1550-7424. 93, p. 15–23. doi: 10.1016/j.rama.2023.12.004. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  In Norway, cattle (Bos taurus) are released to large areas of boreal forest for summer grazing. To determine to what degree this practice challenges timber production and wildlife management, we need a better understanding of basic cattle ecology. What do cattle, typical grazers, feed on in a habitat typically used by browsers? We determined cattle's resource use and selection at three scales: habitat and microhabitat selection when foraging and diet selection. Boreal forest is dominated by grass-poor habitats, and despite their strong selection for grass-rich habitats, cows spent a lot of time in suboptimal habitats, like old bilberry (Vaccinium myrtillus) spruce (Picea abies) forest. However, they managed to find grass-rich habitat patches within those, selecting for patches with bentgrass (Agrostis spp.). Graminoids, mainly wavy hair-grass (Avenella spp.), tussock grass (Deschampsia), and true sedges (Carex spp.), made up the biggest part of the fecal samples. Woody plants, mainly willow (Salix spp.), Vaccinium spp., pine (Pinus spp.), and birch (Betula spp.), made up 9.4% ± 4.7% of the samples, a value lower than reported for other forest grazing cattle. Cattle avoided woody plants in their diet and selected for graminoids. They preferred deciduous over coniferous species. At these low stocking densities, the cows were grazers in this browser's habitat. Moreover, they selected rather on habitat and patch scale than for individual plants within a given habitat patch, considered typical for a grazer. Their grass-rich diet indicates little overlap with the diet of local wild ungulates, which are mostly browsers. Their aversion of spruce and selection for graminoids and deciduous trees indicates low conflict risk for browsing damages and even a beneficial weeding effect on trees planted for timber production.

• Versluijs, Erik; Tofastrud, Morten; Hessle, Anna; Serrouya, Robert; Scasta, Derek & Wabakken, Petter [Show all 7 contributors for this article] (2024). Virtual fencing in remote boreal forests: performance of commercially available GPS collars for free-ranging cattle. Animal Biotelemetry. 12(1). doi: 10.1186/s40317-024-00389-8. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Background The use of virtual fencing in cattle farming is beneficial due to its flexibility, not fragmenting the landscape or restricting access like physical fences. Using GPS (Global Positioning System) technology, virtual fence units emit an audible signal and a low-energy electric shock when crossing a predefined border. In large remote grazing areas and complex terrains, where the performance of the GPS units can be affected by landscape structure, increased positioning errors can lead to unnecessary shocks to the animals leading to animal welfare concerns. This study aimed to explore factors affecting the GPS performance of commercially available virtual fence collars for cattle (NoFence©), both using static tests and mobile tests, i.e., when deployed on free-ranging cattle. Results The static tests revealed generally high fix success rates (% successful positioning attempts), and a lower success rate at four of 30 test locations was most likely due to a lack in GSM (Global System for Mobile communications) coverage. On average the GPS precision and accuracy errors were 3.3 m ± 2.5 SD and 4.6 m ± 3.2 SD, respectively. We found strong evidence that the GPS precision and accuracy errors increased errors under closed canopies. We also found evidence for an effect of the sky-view on the GPS performance, although at a lesser extent than canopy. The direction of the accuracy error in the Cartesian plane was not uniform, but biased, depending on the aspect of the test locations. With an average of 10.8 m ± 6.8 SD, the accuracy error of the mobile tests was more than double that of the static tests. Furthermore, we found evidence that more rugged landscapes resulted in higher GPS accuracy errors. However, the error from mobile tests was not affected by canopy cover, sky-view, or cattle behaviors. Conclusions This study showed that GPS performance can be negatively affected by landscape complexity, such as increased ruggedness and covered habitats, resulting in reduced virtual fence effectiveness and potential welfare concerns for cattle. These issues can be mitigated through proper pasture planning, such as avoiding rugged areas for the virtual fence border.

• Spedener, Mélanie; Mathisen, Karen Marie; Hauer, Josh; Hérault, Rémi; Austrheim, Gunnar & Tofastrud, Morten [Show all 7 contributors for this article] (2024). Effects of cattle grazing on young spruce trees in boreal production forest. Trees, Forests and People. 16. doi: 10.1016/j.tfp.2024.100596. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  The compatibility of forest livestock grazing with timber production is disputed, as livestock can damage young trees through browsing and trampling. At the same time, livestock grazing might reduce the growth of competing vegetation and thereby enhance conifer forest regeneration. We investigated the effects of cattle (Bos taurus) on young spruce (Picea abies) trees in boreal production forest. We compared data from young spruce plantations within and outside of the grazing area, and during and off the cattle grazing season. Overall, stocking rates were 0.01 cows per hectare across the grazing areas. Cattle did not distribute equally, but concentrated their area use to young spruce plantations, leading to locally high densities during periods of the grazing season. Cattle removed vegetation competing with young spruce trees: Within the grazing area, the sward height of the field layer vegetation was lower, and young willow (Salix spec.) and downy birch (Betula pubescens) trees were browsed more than outside the grazing area. The annual height growth of spruce increased once the spruce grew above sward height. Spruce trees surrounded by many competing trees grew slower than those surrounded by few trees. Bent spruce trees grew slower than undamaged spruce trees. Yet, no difference in annual spruce growth was found between inside and outside the cattle grazing area. In contrast, we found a higher spruce mortality risk inside than outside the cattle grazing area. This mortality risk was very low and positively correlated with a given spruce tree's bark being damaged. Cattle did not increase the risk of damaged stem bark. This study did not succeed in pointing out the mechanism by which cattle might increase spruce mortality risk. Interestingly, the probability of being browsed and the probability of being bent were higher after winter than after summer, indicating that wild ungulates and snow might have a stronger effect on young spruce trees than summer grazing cattle at these stocking rates. In conclusion, cattle had minor effects on young spruce trees. This study suggests that at low stocking rates, forestry and livestock production in boreal production systems are compatible.

• Tofastrud, Morten; Møllevold, Ole Henrik Hammerstad & Zimmermann, Barbara (2024). Forage quality, road and stocking density influence the home range size of free-ranging beef cattle in the boreal forest. Applied Animal Behaviour Science. ISSN 0168-1591. 282. doi: 10.1016/j.applanim.2024.106455. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  This study explores area use of beef cows (Bos taurus) free ranging in boreal production forest of south-eastern Norway. The forests in this region serve multiple purposes, with forestry being the predominant industry. Understanding cattle’s area use is crucial for implementing resource management strategies that balance ecological and economic sustainability of these forests. The aim of the study was to examine how extrinsic factors (stocking density, forage quality, road presence, and herd size) and intrinsic factors (reproductive status and breed) influence variations in seasonal and weekly home range sizes of beef suckler cows. The study also investigated changes in home range size over time. The study was conducted over three summers, using GPS collars programmed to record positions at 5 and 10-minute intervals on 75 cows of early and late maturing beef cattle breeds. The cows were allowed to roam freely in two areas, one with a high stocking density and the other with a low stocking density. The seasonal home ranges were found to be surprisingly large, averaging 3979 ± 344 ha and 2554 ± 246 ha ( ± SE) in the low and high stocking density areas, respectively. Both seasonal and weekly home range sizes positively correlated with the proportion of poor-quality vegetation types within the home range. In the low stocking density area, road density was negatively related to seasonal and weekly home range size. Weekly home ranges were largest in the low stocking density area and showed a slight increase throughout the grazing season. No correlation was found between home range size and cattle breed or reproductive status. In line with previous studies on area use by wild herbivores, vegetation quality significantly influenced the size of their home range. Therefore, vegetation mapping in grazing areas is an essential tool for livestock management in non-arable areas. The difference of home range size between the study areas may be due to factors other than stocking density. This finding should therefore be interpreted with caution, despite previous studies on wild herbivores confirming a negative correlation between population densities and home range size. Cows grazing in boreal forests use large areas and even larger when released to areas with poor forage quality, few roads and small stocking densities. This entails considerable movement throughout the grazing season, spanning across numerous habitats. This extensive area use can pose challenges for other stakeholders in the boreal forest and complicate the monitoring of cattle.

• Versluijs, Erik; Niccolai, Laura Jeanne; Spedener, Mélanie; Zimmermann, Barbara; Hessle, Anna & Tofastrud, Morten [Show all 8 contributors for this article] (2023). Classification of behaviors of free-ranging cattle using accelerometry signatures collected by virtual fence collars. Frontiers in Animal Science. 4, p. 1–13. doi: 10.3389/fanim.2023.1083272. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Precision farming technology, including GPS collars with biologging, has revolutionized remote livestock monitoring in extensive grazing systems. High resolution accelerometry can be used to infer the behavior of an animal. Previous behavioral classification studies using accelerometer data have focused on a few key behaviors and were mostly conducted in controlled situations. Here, we conducted behavioral observations of 38 beef cows (Hereford, Limousine, Charolais, Simmental/NRF/Hereford mix) free-ranging in rugged, forested areas, and fitted with a commercially available virtual fence collar (Nofence) containing a 10Hz tri-axial accelerometer. We used random forest models to calibrate data from the accelerometers on both commonly documented (e.g., feeding, resting, walking) and rarer (e.g., scratching, head butting, self-grooming) behaviors. Our goal was to assess pre-processing decisions including different running mean intervals (smoothing window of 1, 5, or 20 seconds), collar orientation and feature selection (orientation-dependent versus orientation-independent features). We identified the 10 most common behaviors exhibited by the cows. Models based only on orientation-independent features did not perform better than models based on orientation-dependent features, despite variation in how collars were attached (direction and tightness). Using a 20 seconds running mean and orientation-dependent features resulted in the highest model performance (model accuracy: 0.998, precision: 0.991, and recall: 0.989). We also used this model to add 11 rarer behaviors (each< 0.1% of the data; e.g. head butting, throwing head, self-grooming). These rarer behaviors were predicted with less accuracy because they were not observed at all for some individuals, but overall model performance remained high (accuracy, precision, recall >98%). Our study suggests that the accelerometers in the Nofence collars are suitable to identify the most common behaviors of free-ranging cattle. The results of this study could be used in future research for understanding cattle habitat selection in rugged forest ranges, herd dynamics, or responses to stressors such as carnivores, as well as to improve cattle management and welfare.

• Tofastrud, Morten; Hessle, Anna; Rekdal, Yngve & Zimmermann, Barbara (2020). Weight gain of free-ranging beef cattle grazing in the boreal forest of south-eastern Norway. Livestock Science. ISSN 1871-1413. 233. doi: 10.1016/j.livsci.2020.103955. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Young forest stands and clearcuts in the boreal forest created by modern forestry practices along with meadows of abandoned summer farms may contribute as feeding areas for beef cattle. The patchy distribution and varying quality and diversity of forage on such unimproved lands may affect cattle productivity. Weight gain of 336 beef cows and 270 calves free-ranging during three summer grazing seasons was monitored in boreal forests of southeastern Norway, stocked at either high (0.16 cows ha-1) and low (0.04 cows ha-1) stocking densities. We used linear mixed effect models for assessing intrinsic correlates of weight gain in cows and calves in the two areas. Habitat use and home range size of a subsample of 53 cows were monitored by using GPS collars programmed to log locations at 5 min. intervals during the grazing season. Additional extrinsic correlates of weight gain for the subsampled cows using a linear mixed model were also tested. Average weight gain of beef cows grazing at the low stocking density was positive among cows of early maturing breeds (represented by Hereford) gaining 24 ± 2.8 kg ( ± SE), while cows of late maturing breeds (mainly represented by Charolais) had an average weight loss of 9 ± 8.4 kg. The average weight gain was negative for beef cows of both early (Herefords) and late maturing breeds (mainly represented by Charolais but also Limousin and Simmental) at the high stocking density. Within both breed groups, there was a negative relationship between breed-specific average weight of cows at turnout and weight gain during the grazing period, while a prolonged grazing period was slightly positively related to weight gain. There was no relationship between weight gain and home range size and proportion of grazing habitat for the 53 cows fitted with GPS collars. Higher weight gains in calves of the low compared to the high stocking density area was found. However, there was no breed effect of weight gain in calves. Across study areas, spring-born suckler calves gained more weight than autumn-born calves (92 ± 1.7 kg vs. 65 ± 4.4 kg). Also, there were higher weight gains for springborn bull-calves than spring-born heifers (100 ± 2.4 kg vs. 94 ± 2.2 kg). Overall, the results indicate that it is possible to achieve acceptable weight gains for cattle grazing coniferous forest by finding breeds suitable for these extensive areas and stocking at moderate densities.

• Spedener, Mélanie; Tofastrud, Morten; Devineau, Olivier & Zimmermann, Barbara (2019). Microhabitat selection of free-ranging beef cattle in south-boreal forest. Applied Animal Behaviour Science. ISSN 0168-1591. 213, p. 33–39. doi: 10.1016/j.applanim.2019.02.006. Full text in Research Archive
• Tofastrud, Morten; Devineau, Olivier & Zimmermann, Barbara (2019). Habitat selection of free-ranging cattle in productive coniferous forests of south-eastern Norway. Forest Ecology and Management. ISSN 0378-1127. 437, p. 1–9. doi: 10.1016/j.foreco.2019.01.014. Full text in Research Archive
• Tofastrud, Morten; Hegnes, Hilde; Devineau, Olivier & Zimmermann, Barbara (2018). Activity patterns of free-ranging beef cattle in Norway. Acta agriculturæ Scandinavica. Section A, Animal science. ISSN 0906-4702. p. 1–9. doi: 10.1080/09064702.2018.1524928. Full text in Research Archive
• Hansen, Inger; Braastad, Bjarne Olai; Storbråten, Jonny & Tofastrud, Morten (1993). Differences in fearfulness indicated by tonic immobility between laying hens in aviaries and cages. Animal Welfare. ISSN 0962-7286. 2, p. 105–112. Full text in Research Archive

View all works in NVA

• Mayer, Martin; Dyngeland, Cecilie; Tofastrud, Morten; Wabakken, Petter & Zimmermann, Barbara (2025). Tap av storfe og sau i norsk utmark: hvorfor, hvor og når? Full text in Research Archive
• Versluijs, Erik; Zimmermann, Barbara; Niccolai, Laura Jeanne; Tofastrud, Morten; Hessle, Anna Karin & Scasta, John Derek [Show all 9 contributors for this article] (2025). How Advances in Livestock Technology Can Aid Wildlife Coexistence: a Case Study on Free-Ranging Cattle in the Boreal Forest. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  In the last decade, technological advances have soared, both within wildlife research and livestock production. Within livestock farming, there has been a significant increase in technological applications to measure and monitor animal health, with the main focus on increasing production and maintaining high animal welfare standards. These precision livestock farming (PLF) techniques can be utilized beyond highly modernized barns. One such example is the use of accelerometers, i.e. activity sensors from which behaviours or certain activity states can be derived. For example, in an earlier study, we have successfully used accelerometers in free-ranging cattle in large, extensive forest areas in Norway to study cattle behaviours at high spatio-temporal resolution. However, interactions between livestock and wildlife bring multifaceted societal challenges of high complexity, such as livestock depredation. For example, repeated livestock depredation negatively affects animal welfare, is economically and emotionally straining to farmers, and leads to lower acceptance level for wildlife, such as carnivores, at a societal level. Studying wildlife species requires considerable effort, often using invasive techniques, and generally results in lower sample sizes due to lower population densities. Increasing focus on studying livestock within wildlife conflicts offers the opportunity to understand how different species, breeds, and age classes are affected by interactions with wildlife. At the same time, this provides valuable information about wildlife species. We have successfully used accelerometers on free-ranging cattle in large, extensive forest areas in Norway to study cattle behaviours at high spatio-temporal resolution. In our study, all adult cattle in the herds were equipped with virtual fence collars, recording both GPS and acceleration data. By using a behavioural classification model, we predicted behaviours and examined how different environmental, climatic, and topographic drivers relate to these behaviours. Ultimately, this can be used to study changes of behaviours, and potentially increased stress and vigilance behaviour in response to carnivore presence or other perceived risks. Furthermore, high livestock abundance and lower effort required for tagging livestock can increase the understanding of differences between breeds, ages, farming systems, etc., and therefore aid in coexistence with wildlife and reducing wildlife conflicts.

• Versluijs, Erik; Zimmermann, Barbara; Hessle, Anna Karin & Tofastrud, Morten (2025). Living with wolves: A new framework to enhance coexistence with wolves by studying livestock behaviours. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Coexisting with wolves brings multifaceted societal challenges of high complexity, such as livestock losses due to depredation. Countries often support farmers with economic compensation of livestock losses. However, farmers affected by repeated depredation events might not only suffer economically, but also emotionally. The resulting increase in stress and worry can impact their daily life, which in turn can negatively effect animal welfare. Furthermore, repeated livestock depredation will negatively effect animal welfare, as individuals which are not attacked who might have higher stress levels. In the meantime, many studies related to wolf management and coexistence are focussing directly on wolf behaviour and preventive measures to alleviate conflicts. These efforts are of great importance. However, in addition to this, we propose a new framework for studying livestock behaviours using precision livestock farming (PLF) techniques to enhance coexistence with wolves. Within livestock farming there is a strong increase in technological applications to measure and monitor animal health, with the main focus on increasing production and maintaining high animal welfare standards. These PLF techniques can reach further than only be used in highly modernized barns. One such example is the use of accelerometers, i.e. activity sensors from which behaviours or certain activity states can be derived. We have in an earlier study successfully used accelerometers in free-ranging cattle in large extensive forest areas in Norway to study cattle behaviours at high spatio-temporal resolution. Based on these experiences, we propose creating a broader network of cattle behaviour studies that consider different herd compositions, pasture types, breeds, ages, and management practices. Therefore, creating a wide knowledge base about breed specific livestock behaviours and responses towards wolf presence gives the opportunity to 1) inform farmers and suggest adjustments of management practices in specific situations, such as changing to breeds or herd compositions with a lower probability of depredation. And 2) developing tools to better monitor livestock behaviour, for example to detect sudden changes in behaviour suggesting towards wolf presence. In this presentation we will outline this interdisciplinary framework, discuss the technology and methods, and use a practical case to show how this might be implemented.

• Zimmermann, Barbara; Hartog, Emma den; Dyngeland, Cecilie; Tofastrud, Morten; Wabakken, Petter & Kleiven, Jo (2024). Dødelighet og forebyggende tiltak mot rovviltskader hos storfe i Europa og Nord-Amerika 1999 - 2020. Full text in Research Archive
• Spedener, Mélanie; Hérault, Rémi; Hauer, Josh; Mathisen, Karen Marie; Tofastrud, Morten & Austrheim, Gunnar [Show all 7 contributors for this article] (2024). Positive and negative effects of cattle on small spruces in boreal production forest. Full text in Research Archive
• Zimmermann, Barbara; Dyngeland, Cecilie; Mayer, Martin & Tofastrud, Morten (2024). Cattle farmers’ experiences with carnivores and dogs. Full text in Research Archive
• Zimmermann, Barbara; Niccolai, Laura Jeanne; Versluijs, Erik; Spedener, Mélanie; Evans, Alina & Tofastrud, Morten [Show all 7 contributors for this article] (2024). How can electronical tags for livestock facilitate livestock production in areas with large carnivores? Full text in Research Archive
• Niccolai, Laura Jeanne; Wulff, Saskia H.; Versluijs, Erik; Spedener, Mélanie; Zimmermann, Barbara & Hessle, Anna [Show all 9 contributors for this article] (2024). Forest Cows Secrets: Cracking the Code With Movement Sensors. Frontiers for Young Minds. doi: 10.3389/frym.2024.1305706. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Have you ever wondered how we can watch animals in the wild without actually being near them? In Norway, cows roam freely in the deep forest during summer. While the cows enjoy the freedom, it can be tricky to keep them safe from carnivores like wolves and bears, as no shepherds or dogs protect the herds. Keeping an eye on the cows is important! Farmers and researchers use GPS to track animals, just as we do for phones or cars. However, GPS does not tell us much about what the animals are doing. That is where movement sensors come in. These sensors store information about the tiniest body movements and reveal what the animal is doing at any time. Is the cow’s head up or down? Is it walking or running? Based on the data, we could distinguish 20 different behaviors! Now we can spy on cows, see what they are up to in the forest, and help farmers better care for them.

• Versluijs, Erik; Zimmermann, Barbara; Tofastrud, Morten; Hessle, Anna; Scasta, John Derek & Serrouya, Robert [Show all 7 contributors for this article] (2024). Behavioural dependent habitat selection of free-ranging cattle in the boreal forest. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  During the 20th century, when large carnivores were subject to eradication in Norway, farmers started to release their livestock unsupervised in the forests during summer. Since 1970, Norway has committed to conserve large carnivores, which led to high losses in domestic sheep herds. Therefore, farmers are encouraged to use cattle instead, as cattle have a hundred times lower depredation rate. However, farmers report increased stress in cattle, and income loss. We GPS collared all adult cattle (N = 125) in four herds and two areas in the Innlandet County of SE-Norway. The collars included accelerometer sensors and were equipped with virtual fencing technology to retain the animals inside areas up to 25 km2. We registered GPS positions of cattle using 15-minute intervals and predicted common behaviours such as grazing, walking, vigilance, and resting, using accelerometry signatures. We used multi-state step-selection analyses to study effects of environmental variables (habitat, weather) on cattle behaviours,body condition, and seasonal variability. Preliminary results indicated that cattle used mostly forest roads for walking, as previously shown. Our results provide novel insights about cattle’s space-use in boreal forests, and the potential to study the compatibility of free-ranging cattle with carnivores and effects on animal welfare.

• Adamski, Genevieve; Versluijs, Erik; Zimmermann, Barbara & Tofastrud, Morten (2023). Outstanding in their field: factors influencing cattle habitat selection in Norwegian summer ranging areas. Full text in Research Archive
• Hartog, Emma den; Dyngeland, Cecilie; Tofastrud, Morten; Kleiven, Jo; Scasta, John Derek & Serrouya, Robert [Show all 7 contributors for this article] (2023). Carnivore depredation on cattle and measures to prevent this: Comparing experiences across Europe and North America. Full text in Research Archive
• Versluijs, Erik; Zimmermann, Barbara; Tofastrud, Morten; Hessle, Anna; Evans, Alina & Adamski, Genevieve [Show all 9 contributors for this article] (2023). Towards a shared forest: Studying the compatibility of free-ranging cattle and carnivores in boreal forests. Full text in Research Archive
• Tofastrud, Morten & Zimmermann, Barbara (2021). Bruk av utmarksbeite til storfe. Buskap : medlemsblad for Geno. ISSN 0807-5069. p. 28–30. Full text in Research Archive
• Glærum, Marit & Tofastrud, Morten (2021). Slipp dyr i moderat hold – og slipp tidlig. [Journal]. Norsk Landbruk. Full text in Research Archive
• Tofastrud, Morten (2020). Kjøttfe i utmark. Full text in Research Archive
• Cottis, Thomas; Willebrand, Maria Hörnell & Tofastrud, Morten (2019). Høgskolen i Innlandet trår til for landbruk og klima. Ringsaker Blad. Full text in Research Archive
• Zimmermann, Barbara; Tofastrud, Morten & Vogler, Thomas (2017). Storfe på skogsbeite - Sommeren 2016. Full text in Research Archive
• Tofastrud, Morten (2017). Habitatvalg og beiteatferd hos storfe i sør - boreal skog. Full text in Research Archive
• Tofastrud, Morten (2017). Status for arbeidet med storfe på skogsbeite prosjektet. Full text in Research Archive
• Tofastrud, Morten; Hegnes, Hilde; Hessle, Anna & Zimmermann, Barbara (2017). Activity and weight gain of free-ranging beef cattle in south-boreal forests of Norway. Full text in Research Archive
• Tofastrud, Morten (2017). Beiteatferd og habitatvalg hos storfe på skogsbeite. Full text in Research Archive
• Tofastrud, Morten; Hegnes, Hilde; Hessle, Anna & Zimmermann, Barbara (2017). Activity and weight gain of free-ranging cattle in south boreal forests of Norway. Full text in Research Archive
• Tofastrud, Morten (2017). Kjøttfe på skogsbeite. Full text in Research Archive
• Tofastrud, Morten (2017). Forskningsprosjekt: Hvordan utnytter hos storfe beiter i skog. Full text in Research Archive
• Tofastrud, Morten (2017). Bruk av utmarksbeite i skogsterreng som ressurs. Full text in Research Archive
• Tofastrud, Morten & Zimmermann, Barbara (2017). Storfe på skogsbeite. Full text in Research Archive
• Tofastrud, Morten (2017). Storfe på skogsbeite I Hedmark. Full text in Research Archive
• Tofastrud, Morten (2017). Hva gjør kua ute i skogen? Full text in Research Archive
• Tofastrud, Morten & Zimmermann, Barbara (2017). Habitatvalg og beiteatferd hos kjøttfe i boreal skog. TYRmagasinet. ISSN 1890-8462. p. 8–8. Full text in Research Archive
• Tofastrud, Morten (2017). Habitat selection and grazing behaviour of free-ranging cattle in boreal forests of south eastern Norway (IRSAE). Full text in Research Archive
• Zimmermann, Barbara; Tofastrud, Morten; Vogler, Thomas; Bakmann, Ole & Skogholm, Bjørn (2016). Cattle in the woods: Sustainable beef cattle production on forest pastures. Full text in Research Archive
• Tofastrud, Morten & Zimmermann, Barbara (2016). Grazing of free-ranging cattle in south-boreal forests of south eastern Norway. Full text in Research Archive
• Tofastrud, Morten (2016). Presentasjon av storfebeite prosjektet. Full text in Research Archive
• Tofastrud, Morten (2016). Storfe på skogsbeite i Stange og Romedal almenninger. Full text in Research Archive
• Tofastrud, Morten (2016). Planleggingsmøte for beitesesongen 2016. Full text in Research Archive
• Tofastrud, Morten (2016). Storfe på skogsbeite i Stange og Romedal almenninger. Full text in Research Archive
• Tofastrud, Morten (2016). Hvordan kan storfe på utmarksbeite være en bærekraftig ressursbruk? Full text in Research Archive
• Tofastrud, Morten (2016). Storfe på skogsbeite. Full text in Research Archive
• Tofastrud, Morten (2016). Storfe på skogsbeite i Stange og Romedal almeninger. Full text in Research Archive
• Amundsen, Bård & Tofastrud, Morten (2015). Kua tilbake til skogen – større enn noensinne. [Internet]. forskning.no. Full text in Research Archive
• Tofastrud, Morten (2015). Orientering om prosjektarbeid sommer 2015. Full text in Research Archive
• Kløvstad, Astri & Tofastrud, Morten (2015). Produksjon av tømmer og kjøtt på samme areal? [Journal]. Norsk skogbruk. Full text in Research Archive
• Seierstad, Lars Kristian & Tofastrud, Morten (2015). Banebrytende storfeprosjekt i almeningene. [Journal]. Stangeavisa. Full text in Research Archive
• Tofastrud, Morten (2015). Presentasjon av feltarbeid i forbindelse med beiteprosjekt. Full text in Research Archive
• Tofastrud, Morten (2015). Habitatvalg og beiteatferd hos storfe på skogsbeite. Full text in Research Archive
• Tofastrud, Morten (2015). Beiteatferd og habitatbruk hos storfe på skogsbeite. Full text in Research Archive
• Tofastrud, Morten (2015). Beiteadferd og habitatbruk hos storfe på skogsbeite. Full text in Research Archive
• Tofastrud, Morten (2015). Habitatvalg og beiteatferd hos storfe i sør - boreal skog. Full text in Research Archive
• Tofastrud, Morten (2015). Storfe - vekst; lønner det seg med utmarksbeite? Full text in Research Archive
• Tofastrud, Morten (2015). Presentasjon av forskning på skogsbeite for storfe. Full text in Research Archive
• Tofastrud, Morten (2014). Prosjekt: Kartlegging av storfeets bruk av beitet. Full text in Research Archive
• Spedener, Mélanie; Austrheim, Gunnar; Goudier, Alexandre; Hauer, Josh; Helbert, Juliette & Henriksen, Marie Vestergaard [Show all 16 contributors for this article] (2025). Husdyr på skogsbeite: Påvirkninger på granforyngelse og plante-pollinator-samfunn. Universitetet i Innlandet. ISSN 9788283805871. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Diskusjonen om husdyr på utmarksbeite i skog er sammensatt og går blant annet ut på hvordan det kan kombineres med skogdrift, rovviltforvaltning, og bevaring av biologisk mangfold. I dette forskningsprosjektet har vi undersøkt hvordan husdyr på sommerbeite i skog innenfor eller nær ulvesonen påvirker skogbruk og artsmangfold. Nærmere bestemt har vi studert effektene av sau innenfor rovviltavvisende gjerder og av frittgående storfe på granforyngelse og plante-pollinator samfunn i boreal produksjonsskog. Vi undersøkte hvorvidt beitedyrene gjorde skade på unge grantrær gjennom beiting og tråkk og hvorvidt de bidro til ungskogspleie ved å fjerne konkurrerende vegetasjon. I tillegg undersøkte vi hvordan beitedyr påvirket planter i feltsjiktet, blomsterressurser og pollinerende insekter. Hverken storfe eller sau førte til økte beite- og tråkkeskader på små grantrær. Både storfe og sau bidro til ungskogspleie ved å beite på løvtrær og ved å redusere høyden av feltsjiktvegetasjonen. Storfe førte til økt dødelighet hos gran, om så i svært begrenset omfang, mens sau førte til økt høydetilvekst. Både storfe og sau påvirket feltsjiktvegetasjonen, men storfe i større grad enn sau. Sau førte til redusert høyde av graminider, mens storfe førte til redusert høyde av graminider, lyng og urter, i tillegg til redusert mengde av graminider. Både storfe og sau påvirket blomsterressursene, og storfe hadde igjen større effekt enn sau. Mens sau førte til en nedgang i artsrikdom, førte storfe til nedgang i både artsrikdom og mengde av blomster. Både storfe og sau påvirket pollinerende insekter, og her førte begge til en nedgang i mengden av disse. Funnene våre tilsier at både sau innenfor rovviltavvisende gjerder og frittgående storfe godt kan kombineres med dagens skogbruk som har som hovedmål å produsere grantømmer ved bruk av flatehogst – i hvert fall når husdyrtetthetene er like lave som i våre studieområder. Vi var overrasket over at husdyrene hadde negative effekter på plante-pollinator samfunn. Dette er bekymringsfullt og bør tas hensyn til, særlig siden vi nesten utelukkende fant ville pollinatorer i studieområdene våre, som er av stor interesse i forhold til naturvern.

• Spedener, Mélanie; Zimmermann, Barbara; Mathisen, Karen Marie; Tofastrud, Morten; Austrheim, Gunnar & Henriksen, Marie Vestergaard [Show all 7 contributors for this article] (2025). The role of summer grazing beef cattle in boreal production forest. Universitet i Innlandet / University of Inland Norway. ISSN 9788283805543. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  Sammendrag på norsk I Norge beiter kjøttfe i store områder av boreal produksjonsskog preget av flatehogst på sommeren (mai-september). Vi studerte først mat- og habitatvalg av disse kyrne (Artikkel I– II), og deretter effektene av storfe på flora og fauna (Artikkel III-V). Datainnsamlingen foregikk i Sørost-Norge i 2015-2017 (Furnes/Vang og Stange/Romedal) og 2021-2023 (Steinvik og Deset). Vi studerte kyrnes ressursvalg ved å klassifisere deres adferd ved hjelp av GPS og akselerasjonsdata, ved å hente inn (fra kart) og måle (i felt) habitatvariabler, ved å samle inn møkkprøver til mikrohistologiske analyser og ved å modellere ressursseleksjonsfunksjoner. Vi fokuserte på unge granplantefelt for å studere effektene av kjøttfe på flora og fauna, siden kyrene selekterer for denne skogstypen. Dessuten har små grantrær høy økonomisk verdi og unge granplantefelt er rikere i blomster og pollinatorer enn det resterende skoglandskapet. På 24 unge granplantefelt satt vi opp parede prøveflater (20x20 m hver), hvorav en omgitt av et gjerde. Vi så på unge trær, vegetasjonen i feltsjiktet og blomsterbesøkende insekter. Siden halvparten av disse granplantefeltene lå innenfor, og den andre halvparten utenfor beiteområdene, kunne vi skille effektene av storfe fra effektene av hjortedyr, som lever vilt i disse skogene. Interaksjoner mellom storfe og hjortedyr studerte vi ved å sette opp viltkamera på de samme granplantefelt og ved å gjennomføre møkktellinger langs et rutemønster i ett av beiteområdene. Kyrne hadde en gressrik diett og selekterte for gressrike habitater, både på stor og på liten skala (Artikkel I). Storfe selekterte for forskjellige habitatvariabler (liten skala) avhengig av adferden: Når de beitet, selekterte de for gressrikt habitat, og når de hvilte, selekterte de for gressrikt habitat med lite helling og høy kronedekning (Artikkel II). Storfe førte til bittelitt høyere dødelighet av unge grantrær, men ikke til høyere risiko for tråkk- og beiteskader (Artikkel III). Storfe fjernet vegetasjon som konkurrerte med unge grantrær, det vil si unge løvtrær og vegetasjon i feltsjiktet (Artikkel III). Storfe påvirket plante-pollinatorsamfunnet på en annen måte enn hjortevilt: Utgjerding av klovdyr utenfor beiteområde (hjortedyr) førte til lavere abundans av blomster, mens utgjerding av klovdyr innenfor beiteområde (hjortedyr og storfe) førte til lavere abundans av blomster og lavere abundans av blomsterbesøkende insekter (Artikkel IV). Elg brukte andre habitattyper enn storfe (Artikkel V). Elgen sitt bruk av unge granplantefelt avtok med økende bruk av storfe (Artikkel V). Mulige beiteinnskrenkende tiltak, samt bevaring av artsmangfoldet i boreal produksjonsskog ble drøftet, og anbefalinger for videre forskning ble gitt.

• Tofastrud, Morten; Zimmermann, Barbara; Devineau, Olivier; Hessle, Anna; Aletengqimuke, S & Dickel, Lisa [Show all 10 contributors for this article] (2019). Beiteatferd, habitatseleksjon og produktivitet hos storfe på utmarksbeite. Universitetet i Innlandet. ISSN 9788283801576. Full text in Research Archive Show summary

  English: Political objectives of increased beef cattle production in Innlandet county will lead to an increased use of unproductive areas for cattle grazing, especially by specialized international beef cattle breeds. Cattle were bred to perform optimally on homogeneous, flat grasslands. In the forest, the habitat is highly heterogeneous, and grazing resources are patchily distributed and at lower concentrations. We have studied grazing behaviour, habitat selection and body growth of beef cattle in two study areas of southeast Norway. One area had a stocking density far below and the other well above the estimated grazing capacity. We used GPS-collars with activity sensors to monitor cattle movements every five or ten minutes throughout the summer grazing season. In addition, many cows and calves were weighted at release and homing. The cows used about one third of their time for grazing, but they adapted grazing time to the seasonally changing day length. In areas with a higher proportion of poor habitat, cattle had larger home ranges. Old summer farm meadows were the most preferred habitat type, followed by young forest stands younger than fifteen years. In the area of high stocking density, the animals additionally preferred habitat types of poorer grazing quality. For resting, the cattle preferred flat, grassy sites with canopy cover. Gain in body weight was highest for cows in the low stocking density area, while a higher proportion of cows at high stocking density lost weight during the grazing season. Earlymaturing breeds had highest increase in body weight in the area of low stocking density. Lactating cows had lower body weight gain, used smaller home ranges and spent more time grazing than dry cows. We conclude that international cattle breeds are suitable for beef production in the heterogenous environment of boreal forest pastures, given that the stocking density does not exceed the grazing capacity of the area. Further research should focus on positive and negative effects that grazing can have on biodiversity and other ecosystem services of the boreal forest, such as forestry, game harvest and tourism.

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